A. TRANSPORT CRITERIA
1. WHEN IS TRAFFIC A PROBLEM?
1.1 What is A Traffic Problem?
The question may seem odd. It may hardly seem
Worth asking. We are all familiar with a traffic
jam. We have all experienced the irritation and
frustration of traffic at a stand-still or moving
at a snail's pace. We all know, in a general way,
what is meant by a traffic problem.
Regrettably the matter is rather more complex.
There are certain traffic problems which must be
addressed in order to satisfy the needs of the
motorist. There are others which must be tackled
because traffic impinges unduly upon residential
areas or other areas where it is unwanted (such as
shopping centres). Curiously, there are traffic
problems which are better ignored, either because
the solution is likely to be counter-productive
(in a way which we wil1 explain shortly) or the
'cure' worse than the disease.
There are certain traffic problems which must be
addressed in order to satisfy the needs of the
motorist. There are others which must be tackled
because traffic impinges unduly upon residential
areas or other areas where it is unwanted (such as
shopping centres). Curiously, there are traffic
problems which are better ignored, either because
the solution is likely to be counter-productive
(in a way which we wil1 explain shortly) or the
'cure' worse than the disease.
1.2. The Metropolitan Road System will Continue to Function
It is not difficult to find passages within
transportation studies which suggest that unless
something is done, and done at once, the system
will cease to cope with the demands made upon it.
It is not difficult to find passages within
transportation studies which suggest that unless
something is done, and done at once, the system
will cease to cope with the demands made upon it.
The impression of desperate urgency is created by
the Sydney Area Transportation Study published in
1974. It says:-
the Sydney Area Transportation Study published in
1974. It says:-
"The magnitude of the transportation
task in the Sydney Region to the
period of 2000 is almost overwhelming.”
task in the Sydney Region to the
period of 2000 is almost overwhelming.”
Elsewhere it says:-
"The congestion that exists
suggests that
the highway systems cannot cope with the
current traffic levels."
the highway systems cannot cope with the
current traffic levels."
--------------(ii)----------------
The very use of the word 'cope' suggests the
possibility of a complete breakdown
in which it will 'cease to cope'. In the public
mind the idea of traffic becoming hopelessly
entangled and grinding to a halt has a certain
plausibility. Having witnessed innumerable traffic
jams, and being conscious of increasing car numbers
and car users, surely the point will be reached
where demand so out-strips supply that the system
will cease to function?
possibility of a complete breakdown
in which it will 'cease to cope'. In the public
mind the idea of traffic becoming hopelessly
entangled and grinding to a halt has a certain
plausibility. Having witnessed innumerable traffic
jams, and being conscious of increasing car numbers
and car users, surely the point will be reached
where demand so out-strips supply that the system
will cease to function?
The impression, plausible though it may seem, is
wrong. The system will continue to function if
the Department of Main Roads did nothing more than
maintain the existing road network, without adding
one further kilometre to that network.
wrong. The system will continue to function if
the Department of Main Roads did nothing more than
maintain the existing road network, without adding
one further kilometre to that network.
The point can be demonstrated in a number of ways.
The road network is under greatest strain during
the morning peak period. By nine o’clock, or
thereabouts, the peak subsides. Thereafter the
system accommodates the traffic with relative ease.
Professor Blunden makes the point in this way:
The road network is under greatest strain during
the morning peak period. By nine o’clock, or
thereabouts, the peak subsides. Thereafter the
system accommodates the traffic with relative ease.
Professor Blunden makes the point in this way:
"In most cities some 20-30% of the total
land area is devoted (to) road space
and this is necessary just to permit a
feasible layout of land use activities
and provide for sub-division and access.
In fact it is this vast area of the
ground plan of a city devoted to roads
that has permitted the post-war avalanche
of motor cars to be accommodated in
cities, even though there has been little
addition to the roads in most of them.
One can make simple calculations that
show that with all the running around we
do in cars the average loading on the
urban road system is of the order of a
hundred vehicles per lane per hour a
very light traffic loading."
There are two mechanisms involved:
- one is the flexibility created by
the difference between the peak and
--------------(iii)----------------
- the other is the flexibility of
demand. Congestion drives people
away and they adapt their lives by
going some other way or doing
something else.
It is because of the residual capacity of the
network, and its ability to simply extend the
peak period beyond 9.00 a.m., that the system
continues to 'cope’ even when the demand rises to
an extraordinary leve1, &s it does when there is
a public transport strike.
network, and its ability to simply extend the
peak period beyond 9.00 a.m., that the system
continues to 'cope’ even when the demand rises to
an extraordinary leve1, &s it does when there is
a public transport strike.
1.3 The Consequences of Doing Nothing
What, then, are the consequences of doing nothing?
How can it ever be demonstrated that a road is
‘needed’? The following is a comment by the
Department of Main Roads:
How can it ever be demonstrated that a road is
‘needed’? The following is a comment by the
Department of Main Roads:
"It is clear that because the
system
will never "jam-up", because people
will continue to adjust their lives and
activities as conditions worsen, it is
not possible to establish an "absolute”
need based on existing conditions. It
can only be argued that efforts should.
be made to improve conditions where
they are or are becoming saturated in
order to reduce travel times, operating
costs, to reduce fuel consumption and
promote safety."
will never "jam-up", because people
will continue to adjust their lives and
activities as conditions worsen, it is
not possible to establish an "absolute”
need based on existing conditions. It
can only be argued that efforts should.
be made to improve conditions where
they are or are becoming saturated in
order to reduce travel times, operating
costs, to reduce fuel consumption and
promote safety."
The issue is not whether the system can manage the
job: clearly it can; the issue is whether it can
do the job we1l, or whether it can be made to do it
better by a few additions and adjustments.
job: clearly it can; the issue is whether it can
do the job we1l, or whether it can be made to do it
better by a few additions and adjustments.
Professor Blunden puts it in this way:
"However, the equilibrium
state may not
be as good as it should be. There is
thus plenty of scope for the land use
and transport planners to 'trim the
ship' but it can be done with the
assurance that the ship will not
capsize."
(emphasis added)
be as good as it should be. There is
thus plenty of scope for the land use
and transport planners to 'trim the
ship' but it can be done with the
assurance that the ship will not
capsize."
(emphasis added)
--------------(iv)----------------
2. TRAFFIC AND LAND USE
2.1 Statement of the Principle
Land use affects traffic. Locate certain land uses
within an area (an airport, a port, an industrial
zone, or a retail store) and it is predictable that
traffic will make its way to and from that area.
within an area (an airport, a port, an industrial
zone, or a retail store) and it is predictable that
traffic will make its way to and from that area.
There is another side. The provision or absence of
transport facilities (whether road or rail) affects
land use. If you provide transport facilities you
will bring about land use changes. If you do not,
the land use pattern will be different.
transport facilities (whether road or rail) affects
land use. If you provide transport facilities you
will bring about land use changes. If you do not,
the land use pattern will be different.
The principle is one of interaction between land use
and transport facilities.
and transport facilities.
2.2 The Implications of the Interaction
The implications of this interaction are:
- First, there is an obvious need for
co-ordination between land use planning
and transport planning. - Secondly, where, through lack of
co-ordination, or for whatever reason,
there is a traffic problem, it may be
corrected by manipulating land use rather
than providing additional transport
capacity. - Thirdly, transport changes may cause
significant land use changes. - Fourthly, land use changes may bring
about significant transport changes.
2.3 The Aims of the Land Use/Transport Planning Process
The aims should include the following:
- The system should aim at inducing less
travel rather than more (though a
balance must be struck between access-
ibility and minimisation of travel).
--------------(v)----------------
- The system should aim at reducing the
length of the journey to work. - The system should aim at reducing
journey time. - The opportunities within a region
should be reasonably accessible to
the population of that region. - The system, in short, should aim at
reasonable self-sufficiency within
regions. People should have at their
disposal a reasonable range of
opportunities. They should not feel
impelled to make long journeys
either to seek a job or satisfy
their other needs (shopping, recreation
and so on). - Roads and public transport should work
in combination to handle the transport
task of the region, rather than in
competition.
These aims may appear so general as to be
platitudinous. They are not. A number of illustrations
will be given in the course of this Report in
which we will establish that one solution is
demonstrably better than another because it adheres
to these tenets.
platitudinous. They are not. A number of illustrations
will be given in the course of this Report in
which we will establish that one solution is
demonstrably better than another because it adheres
to these tenets.
A number of 'negatives' can be stated. In some
cases they are simply the converse of the principle
already enunciated. A road may be self-defeating
as a solution to a traffic problem if:
cases they are simply the converse of the principle
already enunciated. A road may be self-defeating
as a solution to a traffic problem if:
- it encourages more travel rather than
less - it tends to increase trip length
- it tends to encourage people to desert
public transport in favour of their cars - it encourages the expansion of the urban
fringe - it encourages growth in a direction in
which it ought to be discouraged
--------------(vi)----------------
2.4 A Traffic Problem Need Not Be Answered By A
Transport Solution
Transport Solution
The manifestation of a transport problem is traffic.
Specifically it is congestion where too many vehicles
are trying to squeeze through too little road space.
Specifically it is congestion where too many vehicles
are trying to squeeze through too little road space.
It is tempting to remedy manifestations of inadequate
road capacity by the provision of more capacity.
road capacity by the provision of more capacity.
However, two things can be demonstrated:
- in certain cases land use or
public transport solutions may
be available and may be preferable - in other cases a transport solu-
tion to a transport problem may
be undesirable.
Policies directed at employment relocation may be a
highly effective means of creating self-sufficiency
within a region. By this means, there is a reduction
in the need for long work journeys by residents
seeking employment outside the region because they
are unable to find a satisfactory job near their
home. Implementing such a policy is notoriously
difficult. There are vast tracts of land zoned
'industrial' which await development in the West
and South-West (where jobs are needed).
highly effective means of creating self-sufficiency
within a region. By this means, there is a reduction
in the need for long work journeys by residents
seeking employment outside the region because they
are unable to find a satisfactory job near their
home. Implementing such a policy is notoriously
difficult. There are vast tracts of land zoned
'industrial' which await development in the West
and South-West (where jobs are needed).
Having acknowledged the difficulty, it is important
that the planners should resort to both 'push and
pull’ factors to bring about the right result. The
'pull’ factors, if they can be so termed, are the
creation of appropriate zonings in particular areas
where the growth is needed to encourage self-
sufficiency. The 'push’ factors are the foreclosing
of other options in areas which are developed too
intensively, and where there is a surplus of jobs
compared to the residential population. That surplus
creates the need for travel from outside the region.
that the planners should resort to both 'push and
pull’ factors to bring about the right result. The
'pull’ factors, if they can be so termed, are the
creation of appropriate zonings in particular areas
where the growth is needed to encourage self-
sufficiency. The 'push’ factors are the foreclosing
of other options in areas which are developed too
intensively, and where there is a surplus of jobs
compared to the residential population. That surplus
creates the need for travel from outside the region.
--------------(vii)----------------
That travel, in turn, may induce a traffic problem.
The traffic problem may be alleviated, in other
words, by pursuing a land use solution: a policy
of greater self-containment and self sufficiency.
The traffic problem may be alleviated, in other
words, by pursuing a land use solution: a policy
of greater self-containment and self sufficiency.
A transport solution to a traffic problem may be
undesirable. The Sydney Area Transportation Study
suggested a series of freeways terminating in Ultimo.
Accessibility to the city by car was to be made
Easier.
undesirable. The Sydney Area Transportation Study
suggested a series of freeways terminating in Ultimo.
Accessibility to the city by car was to be made
Easier.
Is that wise? Is that not likely to reinforce the
attraction of the Central Business District and
encourage commuters to use their cars (rather than
public transport). The suggestion has been rejected.
by the New South Wales Government.
attraction of the Central Business District and
encourage commuters to use their cars (rather than
public transport). The suggestion has been rejected.
by the New South Wales Government.
Instead of a transportation solution (such as the
freeways suggested by SATS) a combination of
policies directed primarily at land use has been
devised to cope with city traffic. First, limitations
have been imposed upon parking. Vehicles are
discouraged from entering the city by the relative
difficulty in finding parking, Secondly,
residential accommodation has been permitted and
encouraged in the city. A number of high rise
buildings are presently under construction or
contemplation. Thirdly, activities have been
encouraged to disperse to other regions. We have
referred already to the regional shopping centres.
The establishment of a Port at Botany Bay will draw
traffic away from the city.
freeways suggested by SATS) a combination of
policies directed primarily at land use has been
devised to cope with city traffic. First, limitations
have been imposed upon parking. Vehicles are
discouraged from entering the city by the relative
difficulty in finding parking, Secondly,
residential accommodation has been permitted and
encouraged in the city. A number of high rise
buildings are presently under construction or
contemplation. Thirdly, activities have been
encouraged to disperse to other regions. We have
referred already to the regional shopping centres.
The establishment of a Port at Botany Bay will draw
traffic away from the city.
2.5 The Options Before This Inquiry
The options presented to this Inquiry are, however,
somewhat lop-sided. There is a heavy emphasis on
road solutions to perceived traffic problems.
Land use (or public transport) alternatives have
not been first eliminated. The land use implications
of building certain options do not appear to have
been fu1ly explored.
somewhat lop-sided. There is a heavy emphasis on
road solutions to perceived traffic problems.
Land use (or public transport) alternatives have
not been first eliminated. The land use implications
of building certain options do not appear to have
been fu1ly explored.
--------------(viii)----------------
2.5 The Land Use Consequences of Transport Decisions
2.6.1 The Concept of a Travel Budget
We will shortly examine the way in which the
provision of transport facilities affects the
size and shape of the city. The concept of a
travel budget furnishes a plausible explanation,
or at least part of the explanation.
provision of transport facilities affects the
size and shape of the city. The concept of a
travel budget furnishes a plausible explanation,
or at least part of the explanation.
The phenomenon was recognised by the Sydney Area
Transportation Study:
Transportation Study:
"This means that if the
transport
system is improved, personal
choice of employment, shopping,
recreation and other activities
may be expanded, but the time
planned to travel is rarely
reduced. In other words, people
are prepared to travel further
on better facilities in order to
take advantage of better employment
or shopping opportunities.”
system is improved, personal
choice of employment, shopping,
recreation and other activities
may be expanded, but the time
planned to travel is rarely
reduced. In other words, people
are prepared to travel further
on better facilities in order to
take advantage of better employment
or shopping opportunities.”
2.6.2 The Influence of Transport Upon City Shape
In Miami (Florida, U.S.A.) a transport study was
undertaken to plan the transport needs of the city
to the year 2000. The exercise was similar to that
undertaken by the Sydney Area Transportation Study.
An elaborate freeway system was suggested and a
railway for good measure. Unlike Sydney, the plan
was executed. The freeways were built. The rail-
way system was, for the time being, postponed.
undertaken to plan the transport needs of the city
to the year 2000. The exercise was similar to that
undertaken by the Sydney Area Transportation Study.
An elaborate freeway system was suggested and a
railway for good measure. Unlike Sydney, the plan
was executed. The freeways were built. The rail-
way system was, for the time being, postponed.
What was the result? It is graphically described
by Mr. K.W. Dobinson (DMR) in the following passage:
by Mr. K.W. Dobinson (DMR) in the following passage:
"DOBINSON: You can beat demand
If you have got enough money. You
can beat demand at least initially.
But there is a bigger fear..that is
that you change the pattern of life
style in your city. And this has
happened in some American cities and
(its) quite a concern to them. The
If you have got enough money. You
can beat demand at least initially.
But there is a bigger fear..that is
that you change the pattern of life
style in your city. And this has
happened in some American cities and
(its) quite a concern to them. The
--------------(ix)----------------
one that intrigued me the
most was Miami where they
built their entire freeway
system which they worked out
ten years ago. They have
built the whole thing in
ten years for the year 2000..
But the congestion in the
roads in the peak-periods to
my surprise – and here’s the
freeways for the year 2000,
is just as bad as Sydney Harbour
Bridge. And so that is a
classic example of trying to
answer your commuter demands. "
(emphasis
added)
Mr. Dobinson then offered a plausible explanation.
He said:
He said:
It isn’t as if they didn't
beat their demand. They beat
their demand well and truly
but people thought how nice
it would be to live in better
Parts of Florida and so the city
just spread out and they created
a much lower level of development
..the same as Los Angeles..instead
of keeping a fairly compact city
they allowed it to just sprawl. "
beat their demand. They beat
their demand well and truly
but people thought how nice
it would be to live in better
Parts of Florida and so the city
just spread out and they created
a much lower level of development
..the same as Los Angeles..instead
of keeping a fairly compact city
they allowed it to just sprawl. "
(emphasis
added)
2.7 The Transport Consequences of Land Use Decisions
The decision to construct two large container terminals
at Port Botany was a significant alteration of land
use. It was bound to generate dramatic traffic
problems. This Inquiry has been a response to
those problems.
at Port Botany was a significant alteration of land
use. It was bound to generate dramatic traffic
problems. This Inquiry has been a response to
those problems.
A number of solutions have been suggested. Some are
in the nature of transport solutions. Others are
essentially land use solutions. On the one hand, it
was suggested that large container vehicles could be
accommodated by the construction of a high quality
road extending from the Port to the Western Suburbs
or the South Western Suburbs. This was a transport
in the nature of transport solutions. Others are
essentially land use solutions. On the one hand, it
was suggested that large container vehicles could be
accommodated by the construction of a high quality
road extending from the Port to the Western Suburbs
or the South Western Suburbs. This was a transport
--------------(x)----------------
response. On the other hand, it was suggested that
containers destined for the Western suburbs should
be sent by rail to decentralised depots. That is a
land use response. In the result, the Inquiry
preferred the latter course (see Volume I of this
Report). That is not to say that the other traffic
problems identified in the Course of the Inquiry
may not, of themselves, demand the transport solutions
offered by the Cooks River Route or the South
Western option or the other options suggested. That
matter will be examined in the evaluation of each
option.
containers destined for the Western suburbs should
be sent by rail to decentralised depots. That is a
land use response. In the result, the Inquiry
preferred the latter course (see Volume I of this
Report). That is not to say that the other traffic
problems identified in the Course of the Inquiry
may not, of themselves, demand the transport solutions
offered by the Cooks River Route or the South
Western option or the other options suggested. That
matter will be examined in the evaluation of each
option.
3. CONGESTION
3.1 Medical Terminology
Traffic engineering has adopted, in part, the
nomenclature of medicine. It speaks of 'arterial
roads’ and ‘congestion’. Both terms are appropriate
as a description of the phenomena. Yet, the use of
the word ‘congestion’ is, in a sense, unfortunate.
It reinforces in the public mind (if not in the
minds of traffic engineers) that it is something
pernicious and unnecessary, signifying sickness;
something to be eliminated.
nomenclature of medicine. It speaks of 'arterial
roads’ and ‘congestion’. Both terms are appropriate
as a description of the phenomena. Yet, the use of
the word ‘congestion’ is, in a sense, unfortunate.
It reinforces in the public mind (if not in the
minds of traffic engineers) that it is something
pernicious and unnecessary, signifying sickness;
something to be eliminated.
We do not doubt that on occasions it, does signify
sickness in the system and should be eliminated.
On other occasions it does not. It is best ignored
or left alone.
sickness in the system and should be eliminated.
On other occasions it does not. It is best ignored
or left alone.
3.2 The Attitude of the Department of Main Roads To Congestion
The following appears in the transcript:
"COMMISSIONER: Does the
Department have
a view as to the extent to which, as a
matter of philosophy, the demand can be
legitimately suppressed, or does it take
the view that it should never be suppressed?
a view as to the extent to which, as a
matter of philosophy, the demand can be
legitimately suppressed, or does it take
the view that it should never be suppressed?
D.M.R.: The
Department's view in this
respect is that it is the road authority
to provide for arterial roads; it is not
respect is that it is the road authority
to provide for arterial roads; it is not
--------------(xi)----------------
its business to tell people, if you
like by its actions, what they should
and should not do in respect of travel.
It endeavours to, or aims to cater for
the demand as it appears as it will be."
As a pronouncement of policy by the Department of
Main Roads we rather doubt that this statement can
be taken literally. It seems to the Inquiry plainly
wrong in principle. It will be the Inquiry's
contention that there are three separate issues
which must be addressed:
Main Roads we rather doubt that this statement can
be taken literally. It seems to the Inquiry plainly
wrong in principle. It will be the Inquiry's
contention that there are three separate issues
which must be addressed:
- First, where in the network is there
a discrepancy between likely demand
and road capacity, such that congestion
can be anticipated? - Secondly, where there is such a discrepancy,
it is desirable that traffic should be
encouraged in that direction? - Thirdly, where it is desirable, should
the discrepancy be answered by:
provision of more road space or the
implementation of the various other
traffic management techniques);
We suggest that the statement by the Department of
Main Roads cannot be taken literally for a number
of reasons. Questions of policy, as opposed to
simple discrepancies between supply and demand,
necessarily intrude upon decisions made by the
Department to answer or refrain from answering a
call for more road space. The intrusion is through
a number of doors. First, the Department would.
acknowledge, no doubt, that in certain situations
it is simply not possible to answer the demand. No
sooner is it answered that the demand grows which,
once answered, will grow even more and so it goes
on. Secondly, the Department would concede, at
Main Roads cannot be taken literally for a number
of reasons. Questions of policy, as opposed to
simple discrepancies between supply and demand,
necessarily intrude upon decisions made by the
Department to answer or refrain from answering a
call for more road space. The intrusion is through
a number of doors. First, the Department would.
acknowledge, no doubt, that in certain situations
it is simply not possible to answer the demand. No
sooner is it answered that the demand grows which,
once answered, will grow even more and so it goes
on. Secondly, the Department would concede, at
--------------(xii)----------------
least in certain areas, that it should discourage
rather than encourage travel in (or towards) those
areas. The Central Business District is perhaps
the best example. Attempts to facilitate motor
vehicle entry into the Central Business District
have all but been abandoned. The Department,
rightly in the Inquiry's view, now concentrates upon
by-passes. Thirdly, and most importantly, the
Department must be selective in the calls which it
answers because of the severe restraint imposed by
a shrinking budget.
rather than encourage travel in (or towards) those
areas. The Central Business District is perhaps
the best example. Attempts to facilitate motor
vehicle entry into the Central Business District
have all but been abandoned. The Department,
rightly in the Inquiry's view, now concentrates upon
by-passes. Thirdly, and most importantly, the
Department must be selective in the calls which it
answers because of the severe restraint imposed by
a shrinking budget.
3.3 The Expansion of Traffic to Fill the Available
Road
Space
Space
The principle is expressed by Stephen Plowden in the
following way:
following way:
"..Providing more road space
itself
generated more traffic..Very broadly
speaking, the amount of traffic is
governed by what is regarded as a
tolerable level of congestion."
generated more traffic..Very broadly
speaking, the amount of traffic is
governed by what is regarded as a
tolerable level of congestion."
It should not be inferred from this analysis that
high quality facilities (even freeway facilities)
are never appropriate. They may be. It does seem
that certain centres are so attractive in terms of
the job opportunities they offer (principally the
Central Business District and the Central Industrial
Area) that it would be futile to pursue a policy of
eliminating congestion. Demand, in the nature of
things, will always outstrip supply.
high quality facilities (even freeway facilities)
are never appropriate. They may be. It does seem
that certain centres are so attractive in terms of
the job opportunities they offer (principally the
Central Business District and the Central Industrial
Area) that it would be futile to pursue a policy of
eliminating congestion. Demand, in the nature of
things, will always outstrip supply.
3.4 Congestion Must Be Accepted in Certain Areas
So where does that leave us? Does it suggests that
we should give up, and build no further roads? It
most certainly does not. It is a reason, however,
to abandon free-flowing traffic as an ideal in all
areas. In some, it is neither achievable nor
desirable. The principle that traffic tends to
expand to fill available road space is, rather,
simply an illustration of the land use/transportation
we should give up, and build no further roads? It
most certainly does not. It is a reason, however,
to abandon free-flowing traffic as an ideal in all
areas. In some, it is neither achievable nor
desirable. The principle that traffic tends to
expand to fill available road space is, rather,
simply an illustration of the land use/transportation
--------------(xiii)----------------
interaction. It suggests that road building should
be directed rather to the following (amongst other)
situations:
be directed rather to the following (amongst other)
situations:
- It should seek to satisfy demand (and
eliminate congestion) where the direction
of that demand is compatible with the way
in which the land use/transportation
planning process suggests the city should
grow. - It should seek to provide reasonable
accessibility within a region so that job
opportunities located in that region are
accessible to the loca1 population. - It should eliminate congestion where it can
be traced to imperfections or irregularities
in the system, such as the many discontinuities
in the existing road network (where
suddenly a four lane road narrows to three
lanes or two, or takes a sharp bend.
(perhaps utilising some sma11 connecting road)
before continuing on). In many cases
intersections are unduly constricted
inhibiting the utilisation of capacity on
the remainder of the road. Such measures
are directed more at the smooth flow of traffic
than increasing capacity as such.
- It should seek to eliminate congestion
brought about by the mixing of local and
through traffic by the creation of by-passes.
3.5 Other Reasons Why Congestion Must be Tolerated
A policy directed towards the elimination of
congestion, wherever it occurs, may destroy the very
character and fabric of the city.
congestion, wherever it occurs, may destroy the very
character and fabric of the city.
Can it be doubted that a road programme of the sort
contemplated by the Sydney Area Transportation Study
1974 would destroy much of the inner-city of Sydney?
contemplated by the Sydney Area Transportation Study
1974 would destroy much of the inner-city of Sydney?
--------------(xiv)----------------
That area is presently undergoing a revitalisation.
In the judgement of this Inquiry the City of Sydney
is the better for its preservation. Its
destruction in the pursuit of free-flowing traffic
would have been insupportable as a matter of
philosophy (accentuating, as it would, the
attraction of the Central Business District to
motor vehicles) inefficient, in that it would almost
certainly have failed to bring about that result
(as it has in United States) and would have left
Sydney socially, architecturally, and environmentally
a great deal poorer.
In the judgement of this Inquiry the City of Sydney
is the better for its preservation. Its
destruction in the pursuit of free-flowing traffic
would have been insupportable as a matter of
philosophy (accentuating, as it would, the
attraction of the Central Business District to
motor vehicles) inefficient, in that it would almost
certainly have failed to bring about that result
(as it has in United States) and would have left
Sydney socially, architecturally, and environmentally
a great deal poorer.
It is inappropriate to declare war upon congestion
and seek its elimination wherever it occurs. Its
elimination must be far more selective, and the
selection process based upon the interaction between
planning and transport objectives.
and seek its elimination wherever it occurs. Its
elimination must be far more selective, and the
selection process based upon the interaction between
planning and transport objectives.
4. ACCESSIBILITY
4.1 Definition
Accessibility is a common place English term.
Something is accessible if it can be easily reached.
Something is inaccessible if it cannot. A rather
more precise definition is furnished by the State
Transport Study Group:
Something is accessible if it can be easily reached.
Something is inaccessible if it cannot. A rather
more precise definition is furnished by the State
Transport Study Group:
"The term
"accessibility" (is
the) ability to move between
places and thus overcome the
intervening friction of space,
time and/or costs..."
the) ability to move between
places and thus overcome the
intervening friction of space,
time and/or costs..."
It is important to distinguish between:
- accessibility for commuters travelling
to work - accessibility for trucks (between
industrial areas, ports and airports) - accessibility by public transport.
--------------(xv)----------------
4.2 Accessibility By Commuters
It would be wasteful, undesirable and ultimately
self-defeating to pursue the abstract ideal of
maximum accessibility to every nook and cranny
within the metropolitan area.
First, it will require a massive investment in
road facilities. There is simply not the money
available. Secondly, it would encourage more
travel rather than 1ess. Thirdly, it would cause
the consumption of greater energy resources. In
today's uncertain energy climate that would be
folly. It should not be encouraged.
road facilities. There is simply not the money
available. Secondly, it would encourage more
travel rather than 1ess. Thirdly, it would cause
the consumption of greater energy resources. In
today's uncertain energy climate that would be
folly. It should not be encouraged.
It would ultimately be self-defeating because it
would cause the city to sprawl. It would accentuate
the attraction of the central Business District.
It is likely to undermine public transport. It is
1ike1y to accentuate the disadvantage suffered by
those who do not have access to a car.
would cause the city to sprawl. It would accentuate
the attraction of the central Business District.
It is likely to undermine public transport. It is
1ike1y to accentuate the disadvantage suffered by
those who do not have access to a car.
4.3 The Benefits Opened Up by Maximizing Accessibility
Is it not the fact that the creation of a great many
facilities maximizing accessibility, would open up
a range of opportunities simply beyond reach without
them? We rather doubt that it would. People do not
seek a job in the way they select a wine, sipping
this one, and savouring that, in order to choose the
very best. They view a number of jobs in an abstract
way (based upon advertisements) and choose one. They
adjust their sights according to the advantages and
limitations of their position.
facilities maximizing accessibility, would open up
a range of opportunities simply beyond reach without
them? We rather doubt that it would. People do not
seek a job in the way they select a wine, sipping
this one, and savouring that, in order to choose the
very best. They view a number of jobs in an abstract
way (based upon advertisements) and choose one. They
adjust their sights according to the advantages and
limitations of their position.
One must be careful not to over-egg the pudding. We
do not doubt that the provision of a vast network of
facilities would advantage some, and that they would
appreciate the advantage. We simply say that a
transportation philosophy dedicated to accessibility
as some abstract ideal can only be achieved at a
price which is too high (in monetary and human terms),
will create inequities which are too great (between
do not doubt that the provision of a vast network of
facilities would advantage some, and that they would
appreciate the advantage. We simply say that a
transportation philosophy dedicated to accessibility
as some abstract ideal can only be achieved at a
price which is too high (in monetary and human terms),
will create inequities which are too great (between
--------------(xvi)----------------
the carless and those with a car), and the advantages
are like1y to be ephemeral anyway since the city is
likely to spread out.
are like1y to be ephemeral anyway since the city is
likely to spread out.
4.4 Contrast A Plan Dedicated to Reasonable Accessibility
Within Regions
Within Regions
The aim is to foster regional self-containment
rather than large dormitory suburbs serving a few
intensive job centres.
rather than large dormitory suburbs serving a few
intensive job centres.
The policy aim can be pursued first, by encouraging
(in the way already described) industry to locate
in areas where jobs are deficient, and secondly, by
improving accessibility within the region. In the
present Inquiry one of the issues is whether the
Cooks River Route will encourage cross-regional
commuting and prejudice regional self-containment.
Will the South Western Option encourage people to
travel long distances to get to work? Will it
(because of its essentially radial orientation)
cause the urban fringe to further expand?
(in the way already described) industry to locate
in areas where jobs are deficient, and secondly, by
improving accessibility within the region. In the
present Inquiry one of the issues is whether the
Cooks River Route will encourage cross-regional
commuting and prejudice regional self-containment.
Will the South Western Option encourage people to
travel long distances to get to work? Will it
(because of its essentially radial orientation)
cause the urban fringe to further expand?
One is really seeking to encourage an attitude of
mind. When surveying the ‘positions vacant’ columns
in the Sydney Morning Herald certain locations would
be ruled out because they are difficult to get to,
or because substantial traffic congestion is likely
to be encountered.
mind. When surveying the ‘positions vacant’ columns
in the Sydney Morning Herald certain locations would
be ruled out because they are difficult to get to,
or because substantial traffic congestion is likely
to be encountered.
It should be remembered that regions are not being
separated, one from another, by the equivalent of
the Berlin Wall. If people want to travel from one
region to another in search of work, or a better job,
they are free to do so. The issue is whether they
should be encouraged to do so by the provision of
high quality, high speed links.
separated, one from another, by the equivalent of
the Berlin Wall. If people want to travel from one
region to another in search of work, or a better job,
they are free to do so. The issue is whether they
should be encouraged to do so by the provision of
high quality, high speed links.
4.5 Where There is a Problem of Accessibility, What Can be
Done?
The accessibility disadvantage of a region can be
answered by providing greater road capacity within
answered by providing greater road capacity within
--------------(xvii)----------------
that region; by providing a number of direct intra-
regional links making one part of the region
accessible to another.
regional links making one part of the region
accessible to another.
Alternatively, the problem may be addressed by
correcting poor public transport connections within
the Region so that access to job opportunities
within that region is made easier. Again people
are more likely to perceive such opportunities as
desirable if they can be reached effortlessly.
correcting poor public transport connections within
the Region so that access to job opportunities
within that region is made easier. Again people
are more likely to perceive such opportunities as
desirable if they can be reached effortlessly.
The problem may be addressed by a land use solution.
Industry should not be encouraged to locate anywhere
within the region. It should be encouraged to
locate in those areas where the job shortfall is
the greatest.
Industry should not be encouraged to locate anywhere
within the region. It should be encouraged to
locate in those areas where the job shortfall is
the greatest.
4.6 Accessibility For Trucks
Trucks pose a special problem for land use/transportation
planners. They make an impact upon the public mind
and upon the environment far greater than the impact
made by cars. It is desirable that they should have
an adequate road network, providing connections
between major traffic generators, including the large
industrial areas.
planners. They make an impact upon the public mind
and upon the environment far greater than the impact
made by cars. It is desirable that they should have
an adequate road network, providing connections
between major traffic generators, including the large
industrial areas.
What, then, is the problem? The problem is that no
sooner is a road provided to serve trucks than it
becomes cluttered with cars: that in providing
adequate truck connections between one region and
another, one automatically compromises the policy
of self-containment, encouraging cross-regional
commuting.
sooner is a road provided to serve trucks than it
becomes cluttered with cars: that in providing
adequate truck connections between one region and
another, one automatically compromises the policy
of self-containment, encouraging cross-regional
commuting.
There is the suggestion in the present Inquiry that
there is a missing east-west link in the road network.
There is no adequate cross-regional route, so it is
said, between the City and King Georges Road which is
l5 kilometres from the city. The argument will be
examined in the evaluation of each option.
there is a missing east-west link in the road network.
There is no adequate cross-regional route, so it is
said, between the City and King Georges Road which is
l5 kilometres from the city. The argument will be
examined in the evaluation of each option.
--------------(xviii)----------------
4.7 Accessibility May Have to be Sacrificed to Other Objectives
A simple illustration can be given. It may assist
transportation problems in Sydney if Sydney Harbour
were filled in. The North Shore would then not be
separated from the South. Sydney Harbour is perceived
rightly, as one of the city's greatest assets. It
is unthinkable that it should be sacrificed in this
way.
transportation problems in Sydney if Sydney Harbour
were filled in. The North Shore would then not be
separated from the South. Sydney Harbour is perceived
rightly, as one of the city's greatest assets. It
is unthinkable that it should be sacrificed in this
way.
There are less extreme examples. One is presented.
by this Inquiry. The Wolli Creek Valley is a
unique asset to the suburbs which surround it.
It is the last remnant of natural vegetation to
be found in this heavily urbanised area. It is
unthinkable to some that it should now be used for
the purposes of a road. Others view it differently.
They see the benefits to be derived from a road as
being substantially greater than the sacrifice
involved. Ultimately a judgement must be made. It
will be made by this Inquiry.
by this Inquiry. The Wolli Creek Valley is a
unique asset to the suburbs which surround it.
It is the last remnant of natural vegetation to
be found in this heavily urbanised area. It is
unthinkable to some that it should now be used for
the purposes of a road. Others view it differently.
They see the benefits to be derived from a road as
being substantially greater than the sacrifice
involved. Ultimately a judgement must be made. It
will be made by this Inquiry.
There are occasions (and the Wolli Creek Valley may
or may not be one) where accessibility must be
sacrificed in the cause of something which is thought
to be more important.
or may not be one) where accessibility must be
sacrificed in the cause of something which is thought
to be more important.
5. HIERARCHY OF ROADS
5.1 The Functional Classification of Roads
The Metropolitan Road Network performs two distinct
functions:
functions:
- the through traffic function:
it enables people to get from
one place to another; - the access function: it enables
people to gain access to various
facilities or buildings (whether
shops, factories or homes).
--------------(xix)----------------
The concept of a road hierarchy is the concept of
classifying roads according to their function. It seeks
the separation of:-
classifying roads according to their function. It seeks
the separation of:-
- through traffic from local traffic
- even cars from trucks
- pedestrians from both.
Its aim is the elimination of conflict. The conflict
arises through basic differences in the behaviour of
a vehicle moving through an area, to a vehicle which is
seeking access to an area.
arises through basic differences in the behaviour of
a vehicle moving through an area, to a vehicle which is
seeking access to an area.
There is a companion concept known as truck routing.
It recognises that trucks make a greater impact upon
the environment and upon the public mind. It seeks
to confine trucks to a particular designated road
system. Primarily it seeks their exclusion from
residential areas. It seeks their exclusion from
local roads, though it recognises that on occasions
trucks must use 1ocal roads to effect delivery or, in an
industrial area, to pick up goods.
The principle is universally applauded, Notwithstanding
the esteem in which it is held, however, progress is
slow. It is slow because a truck network cannot be
superimposed without consultation. Local councils and
trucking bodies should be permitted to have a say.
Progress is slow because the consultative process is
slow.
the esteem in which it is held, however, progress is
slow. It is slow because a truck network cannot be
superimposed without consultation. Local councils and
trucking bodies should be permitted to have a say.
Progress is slow because the consultative process is
slow.
5.3 The Use of a Road Hierarchy to Improve Residential Amenity
Various road options have been promoted on the basis
that they are able, interalia, to remove traffic
from residential areas. The Canterbury Council
maintains that it can achieve the same objective by
less drastic means, namely a road hierarchy. The
that they are able, interalia, to remove traffic
from residential areas. The Canterbury Council
maintains that it can achieve the same objective by
less drastic means, namely a road hierarchy. The
--------------(xx)----------------
Chief Engineer and Town Planner describes the
Council’s strategy in these terms:
Council’s strategy in these terms:
“SHEFFIELD: The
Council has adopted
a policy of precinct planning whereby
the municipality is divided into over
100 precincts. Each precinct is now
being examined in turn to determine
whether the street system can be
modified by a system of road closures,
pavement width reductions, and other
traffic management measures to eliminate
through traffic and to force that
traffic back onto the arterial roads."
a policy of precinct planning whereby
the municipality is divided into over
100 precincts. Each precinct is now
being examined in turn to determine
whether the street system can be
modified by a system of road closures,
pavement width reductions, and other
traffic management measures to eliminate
through traffic and to force that
traffic back onto the arterial roads."
5.4 The Opportunity Offered by SCAT
SCAT is an acronym for Sydney Co-ordinated Adaptive
Traffic System. It is a system of co-ordinated
traffic lights which will be controlled by computers.
Traffic System. It is a system of co-ordinated
traffic lights which will be controlled by computers.
We, as motorists, have all had the experience of
watching traffic divert from a road in response to
a congested intersection, and the prospect of a
prolonged wait. There are individuals well known
to all of us who take the most tortuous paths in
order to avoid a red light. The philosophy
encapsulated in ‘as long as it moves, it’s okay'
is familiar to all motorists. SCAT has a particular
appeal to such individuals because it will make the
arterial roads much more attractive.
watching traffic divert from a road in response to
a congested intersection, and the prospect of a
prolonged wait. There are individuals well known
to all of us who take the most tortuous paths in
order to avoid a red light. The philosophy
encapsulated in ‘as long as it moves, it’s okay'
is familiar to all motorists. SCAT has a particular
appeal to such individuals because it will make the
arterial roads much more attractive.
SCAT will therefore present an opportunity to
implement a road hierarchy in which the option of
using side streets is, in some cases, closed forever.
The following appears in the transcript:
implement a road hierarchy in which the option of
using side streets is, in some cases, closed forever.
The following appears in the transcript:
"COMMISSIONER: And
doesn't this offer
an opportunity, in conjunction with
the hierarchy, to take advantage of
the fact that traffic should be removed
from residential streets (which should
then be) redeclared if You like, as
residential streets?
an opportunity, in conjunction with
the hierarchy, to take advantage of
the fact that traffic should be removed
from residential streets (which should
then be) redeclared if You like, as
residential streets?
DOBINSON: Most definitely.
COMMISSIONER: So it is
very important
that SCAT does proceed hand-in-hand with
the development of the hierarchy?
that SCAT does proceed hand-in-hand with
the development of the hierarchy?
DOBINSON: Yes. SCAT
reinforces the top
level of the hierarchy, and offers the
option to do something about the low level
by relieving the street system."
level of the hierarchy, and offers the
option to do something about the low level
by relieving the street system."
--------------(xxi)----------------
6. FORECASTING
6.1 Why Are Forecasts Necessary?
The construction of a major road is a vast project.
The estimated time for construction of the Cooks
River Route is 7 years. The same estimate is given
for the South Western Route. They each may well
take more.
The estimated time for construction of the Cooks
River Route is 7 years. The same estimate is given
for the South Western Route. They each may well
take more.
There is no escape, therefore, from the need to
forecast the future.
forecast the future.
6.2 The Hazards of Forecasting
Forecasting is a hazardous business. The forecaster,
like the juggler, is required to keep so many bal1s
in the air that almost inevitably one falls to the
ground. Sometimes the entire forecast falls with it.
like the juggler, is required to keep so many bal1s
in the air that almost inevitably one falls to the
ground. Sometimes the entire forecast falls with it.
The forecast will, faute de mieux, rely upon trends.
Trends have a habit of changing. The symptoms of
change may not be evident until some time after the
change has taken place.
Trends have a habit of changing. The symptoms of
change may not be evident until some time after the
change has taken place.
6.3 The Danger of Traffic Forecasts
The hazards of traffic forecasting are not simply
that they may be wrong. That is certainly one
hazard. It is one which was not concealed by the
Department of Main Roads.
that they may be wrong. That is certainly one
hazard. It is one which was not concealed by the
Department of Main Roads.
The second danger is that a forecast will dramatise
deficiencies in the road system and conceal important
questions of policy. If a corridor of movement is
already straining to carry 10,000 vehicles in the
2 hour morning peak, and 20,000 vehicles are predicted
for 1991, it is difficult not to panic. It is
difficult to restrain the reflex to provide more
road space. Yet policy considerations should enter
the equation at two separate points.
First, the forecast is a prediction based upon an
interpretation of sign posts on display in years
gone-by. It postulates, to a greater or lesser
interpretation of sign posts on display in years
gone-by. It postulates, to a greater or lesser
--------------(xxii)----------------
degree, a continuation of past trends. There is
the danger that it will ignore the planner's ability
to moderate past trends by policy initiatives.
the danger that it will ignore the planner's ability
to moderate past trends by policy initiatives.
Secondly, even where there will be insufficient
capacity no matter what initiatives are taken between
now and the forecast year, it is sti1l necessary to
contemplate the land use implications of meeting the
traffic demand. Is it a good thing for the city’s
overall structure and growth if the evident deficiency
between 10,000 vehicles and 20,000 vehicles (to
take previous example) is corrected? We venture to
suggest that if the deficiency were one within a
radius of 5 kilometres of the Central Business
District, and the direction of travel was towards
the city, everyone would agree that it is better to
shrug one's shoulders, rather than attempt to correct
it.
capacity no matter what initiatives are taken between
now and the forecast year, it is sti1l necessary to
contemplate the land use implications of meeting the
traffic demand. Is it a good thing for the city’s
overall structure and growth if the evident deficiency
between 10,000 vehicles and 20,000 vehicles (to
take previous example) is corrected? We venture to
suggest that if the deficiency were one within a
radius of 5 kilometres of the Central Business
District, and the direction of travel was towards
the city, everyone would agree that it is better to
shrug one's shoulders, rather than attempt to correct
it.
The policy question (as to the land use implications)
must be confronted no matter what the direction of
travel. It may be rather more difficult to answer
where the direction of travel is not (as in the example
towards the Central Business District). Will it lead
to the expansion of the urban fringe? Will it preju-
dice a policy of regional self-containment? Is it
necessary for the purpose of providing reasonable
accessibility for trucks between major industrial
areas, or between important traffic generators?
Can the deficiency be answered by public transport?
Would a road compete with public transport facilities?
Is there a land use solution in the offing?
must be confronted no matter what the direction of
travel. It may be rather more difficult to answer
where the direction of travel is not (as in the example
towards the Central Business District). Will it lead
to the expansion of the urban fringe? Will it preju-
dice a policy of regional self-containment? Is it
necessary for the purpose of providing reasonable
accessibility for trucks between major industrial
areas, or between important traffic generators?
Can the deficiency be answered by public transport?
Would a road compete with public transport facilities?
Is there a land use solution in the offing?
7. TRAFFIC MODELLING
7.1 Outline of Chapter
In the course of the chapter we deal with the following:
- The way in which computers can be
employed to reproduce the flow of traffic
through the Metropolitan road network
the construction of a traffic model).
--------------(xxiii)----------------
- We briefly describe the traffic
model used in the present Inquiry
(known as the ‘four-step' model) - We examine the limitations inherent
in the modelling procedure - The modelling procedure makes certain
assumptions as to population, employment
distribution, car ownership, fuel
availability etc. We briefly examine
those assumptions - Finally we examine the way in which the
four-step model was employed in the
present Inquiry.
7.2 The Public's Understanding of the Model
The public's participation in this Inquiry has been
of immense benefit. It has identified matters of
importance to the community. It has provided an
insight into community attitudes on a number of
issues. It has given the Inquiry the benefit of
accumulated local knowledge. The Inquiry would
have been the poorer without it.
The public’s confidence in an Inquiry is a fragile
thing. There is the danger that the intricacy and
complexity of the model will baffle the public into
silence. Because of the tendency, bred in all of us,
to stand in awe of things we do not comprehend, the
impression may be given that its contribution can only
take the matter so far, and that the issue will be
determined by reference to something far more
'sophisticated’.
thing. There is the danger that the intricacy and
complexity of the model will baffle the public into
silence. Because of the tendency, bred in all of us,
to stand in awe of things we do not comprehend, the
impression may be given that its contribution can only
take the matter so far, and that the issue will be
determined by reference to something far more
'sophisticated’.
What should be done? This Inquiry does not suggest
that modelling should be abandoned. It is a valuable
analytical tool. It does mean, however, that an
attempt should be made to demystify the procedures
followed. The modeller should state the assumptions
made in the course of constructing the model, and the
basis for those assumptions.
that modelling should be abandoned. It is a valuable
analytical tool. It does mean, however, that an
attempt should be made to demystify the procedures
followed. The modeller should state the assumptions
made in the course of constructing the model, and the
basis for those assumptions.
--------------(xxiv)----------------
It should not be thought that this Inquiry is, by
these words, expressing a criticism of the Study
Group. It is not. This Inquiry is the first of
its kind. Hitherto, the Study Group has performed
its task behind closed doors. Those to whom it
presented its material were, by and large, familiar
with its method. There was neither the time nor
the need to 'spell out' exactly what it was doing.
these words, expressing a criticism of the Study
Group. It is not. This Inquiry is the first of
its kind. Hitherto, the Study Group has performed
its task behind closed doors. Those to whom it
presented its material were, by and large, familiar
with its method. There was neither the time nor
the need to 'spell out' exactly what it was doing.
That has changed. The community is quite capable
of examining critically the assumptions. It is
capable of making a contribution to the debate.
The Inquiry will be the richer for that contribution.
of examining critically the assumptions. It is
capable of making a contribution to the debate.
The Inquiry will be the richer for that contribution.
8. ORDERING ROAD PRIORITIES
8.1 The Road Construction Budget is Shrinking
The Department has very limited construction money
at its disposal. It must use its funds sparingly.
It is only too conscious of this limitation. It
says:
at its disposal. It must use its funds sparingly.
It is only too conscious of this limitation. It
says:
'..So the annual rate of
expenditure
on arterial roads in the Sydney area
has been far below that required to
overcome the large backlog of
improvements which are urgently
needed. It seems unlikely that this
position will change in the near
future. "
on arterial roads in the Sydney area
has been far below that required to
overcome the large backlog of
improvements which are urgently
needed. It seems unlikely that this
position will change in the near
future. "
8.2 The Issues to be Addressed
We have been at pains to stress that a traffic
problem need not be answered by a transport solution
In every case one must ask the questions:
problem need not be answered by a transport solution
In every case one must ask the questions:
- What are the land use
implications of doing something?
--------------(xxv)----------------
- What are the implications of doing
nothing? - Is it, therefore, desirable that
something should be done? - If it is, should that 'something’ be
a transport solution (such as the
creation of more road capacity) or a
public transport solution, or a land
use solution?
Assuming these questions have been addressed, and
that a transport solution is thought appropriate,
there is a further series of questions which must
be answered:
that a transport solution is thought appropriate,
there is a further series of questions which must
be answered:
- Is the need so pressing (compared to
other perceived needs throughout the
Metropolitan Area) that scarce money
should be devoted to finding a ‘solution’. - Assuming there is a need, and assuming
it is pressing, is the preferred
solution disproportionate in cost to
the problem which it addresses? - If the problem is essentially local, and
the cost of solving it is high, does it
throw out of kilter the even spread of
scarce funds throughout the entire
Metropolitan Area? - Are there other ways which are less costly
(and perhaps more equitable) of solving
the problem?
8.3 The Equitable Allocation of Funds
The road system is rather better in some areas than
it is in others. There is an expectation on the
part, of the community, nevertheless, (and especially
it is in others. There is an expectation on the
part, of the community, nevertheless, (and especially
--------------(xxvi)----------------
its elected representatives in Local Councils)
that a reasonable share in the road funds
available will be allocated to each area. If
they perceive neglect they feel it keenly.
Ultimately, in the evaluation of options, we will
have to examine how bad the congestion is within
an area which may be relieved by building one or
other of the options (assuming it is thought, as a
matter of land use policy, the congestion is best
eliminated). We will examine how poor accessibility
is from the viewpoint of commuters and truck drivers.
We will express a view as to whether the expenditure
contemplated (in excess of $5O million) is
disproportionate to the problems revealed by the
evidence.
have to examine how bad the congestion is within
an area which may be relieved by building one or
other of the options (assuming it is thought, as a
matter of land use policy, the congestion is best
eliminated). We will examine how poor accessibility
is from the viewpoint of commuters and truck drivers.
We will express a view as to whether the expenditure
contemplated (in excess of $5O million) is
disproportionate to the problems revealed by the
evidence.
8.4 The Need to Examine a Range of Alternatives
Where a transport solution is thought appropriate
to a traffic problem, it may take one or a number
of forms:
- Providing additional facilities
- Expanding existing facilities.
This can be done by:
- road widening
- widening intersections (since
intersections are usually the
weak link in the chain)- adding right-hand turning bays
to assist the capacity of the
intersection and the flow of
traffic
- Improving the efficiency of existing
facilities. This may include:
- traffic management measures
(e.g., clearways, priority
roads, one-way systems etc)- preference to high occupancy
vehicles (e.g., bus only
lanes, transit lanes)- the installation of park and
ride facilities at railway
stations and other inter-changes.
--------------(xxvii)----------------
The Inquiry should be in a position to consider
each alternative. The following was suggested
by NAASRA:
each alternative. The following was suggested
by NAASRA:
"A range of alternative
solutions is
thus possible to most transport problems.
The following generally need to be
considered:
thus possible to most transport problems.
The following generally need to be
considered:
* Alternative scales of improvement
* Alternative rates of improvement
* Improvements to alternative modes
* Regulatory and licensing alternatives
* A land use change
* Combinations of the above
* Making no improvement.”
* Alternative rates of improvement
* Improvements to alternative modes
* Regulatory and licensing alternatives
* A land use change
* Combinations of the above
* Making no improvement.”
A range of alternatives was considered by various
road inquiries in Melbourne. This Inquiry is
concerned that a range of options has not been
put forward for consideration. The only solutions
suggested are in the nature of major surgery. A
band-aid may be inappropriate. But something in-
between may do the job.
road inquiries in Melbourne. This Inquiry is
concerned that a range of options has not been
put forward for consideration. The only solutions
suggested are in the nature of major surgery. A
band-aid may be inappropriate. But something in-
between may do the job.
B. PLANNING
CRITERIA
1. TRANSPORTATION AND PLANNING IN SYDNEY
1.1 The Principles Behind Each Major Planning Instrument
In the section of this Report, Transport Criteria
we have emphasised the interaction between
transport and land use planning. Practising what
we preach, we have already attempted to integrate
the planning criteria with the transport criteria.
we have emphasised the interaction between
transport and land use planning. Practising what
we preach, we have already attempted to integrate
the planning criteria with the transport criteria.
In the course of that journey we have drawn extensively
upon the County of Cumberland Plan (1951) and the
Sydney Region Outline Plan (1968). We have referred
to other important landmarks in transportation
planning in Sydney, including the Sydney Area
Transportation Study (SATS) and the URTAC Report of
February, 1976.
upon the County of Cumberland Plan (1951) and the
Sydney Region Outline Plan (1968). We have referred
to other important landmarks in transportation
planning in Sydney, including the Sydney Area
Transportation Study (SATS) and the URTAC Report of
February, 1976.
The references to these documents are scattered.
In the present chapter we consider some of the more
important principles from each document. We also
consider the policy statement on Freeways by the
Commonwealth Bureau of Roads in 1973.
In the present chapter we consider some of the more
important principles from each document. We also
consider the policy statement on Freeways by the
Commonwealth Bureau of Roads in 1973.
2. TRANSPORT CORRIDORS
2.1 Historical Introduction
The County of Cumberland Planning Scheme provided
a detailed land use strategy for Sydney. Part of
that detail was a network of road corridors. The
network was substantially derived from a Main Roads
Development Plan published in 1946.
a detailed land use strategy for Sydney. Part of
that detail was a network of road corridors. The
network was substantially derived from a Main Roads
Development Plan published in 1946.
The network was lavish. Given the restraint upon
funds, and the change in emphasis, there can be no
doubt that many of the roads will never be built.
funds, and the change in emphasis, there can be no
doubt that many of the roads will never be built.
2.2 The Concept of Declared Corridors
The URTAC Report of February, 1976 considered the
corridor issue. It saw the following alternatives:-
--------------(xxix)----------------
- The existing procedure constitutes
one of (the) alternatives and in
general terms, involves the establish-
ment of a system of declared corridors
based on very long-term planning.
Properties that are affected by these
corridors are acquired, as necessary,
in advance of construction... - The other basic alternative would be
to forego the declared corridor
concept and acquire property only as
required for immedia1e construction
programmes.
In the course of this chapter we examined briefly
the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative.
the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative.
2.3 The Corridors in the Present Inquiry
Most road options before this Inquiry are within
corridors reserved by the County of Cumberland
Scheme or by a later planning instrument. If
the Inquiry takes the view, in its evaluation, that
a road is not needed, or a particular option is
undesirable, it must confront the corridor issue.
Should the corridor be released? Should it be
modified? Can part of the corridor be released?
corridors reserved by the County of Cumberland
Scheme or by a later planning instrument. If
the Inquiry takes the view, in its evaluation, that
a road is not needed, or a particular option is
undesirable, it must confront the corridor issue.
Should the corridor be released? Should it be
modified? Can part of the corridor be released?
Corridors obviously should not be regarded as
sacrosanct. They should be released if they
are not required. The position may have changed since
1948 when the corridors were introduced. There was
a time when the whole of Botany Bay was reserved for
flying boats. There was, if you like, a corridor
restricting its development and use. The jet age
put an end to flying boats. It was appropriate that
the corridor should be released. It has been
released.
sacrosanct. They should be released if they
are not required. The position may have changed since
1948 when the corridors were introduced. There was
a time when the whole of Botany Bay was reserved for
flying boats. There was, if you like, a corridor
restricting its development and use. The jet age
put an end to flying boats. It was appropriate that
the corridor should be released. It has been
released.
In the context of cost/benefit analysis Professor
M.E. Beesley said this:
M.E. Beesley said this:
“..The implicit argument is that
(the)
D.M.R. expect the cost benefit ratio
to become more favourable (‘acceptable’)
at some future time, a calculation in
D.M.R. expect the cost benefit ratio
to become more favourable (‘acceptable’)
at some future time, a calculation in
--------------(xxx)----------------
which resumption cost will include
the cost of acquiring the land plus
demolition etc. If this is so, it
should be demonstrated, or at least
shown to be a reasonable probability.
It is unreasonable to argue as if
resumption costs are infinite."
(emphasis added)
the cost of acquiring the land plus
demolition etc. If this is so, it
should be demonstrated, or at least
shown to be a reasonable probability.
It is unreasonable to argue as if
resumption costs are infinite."
(emphasis added)
The Inquiry agrees.
C. ECONOMIC
CRITERIA
1. THE TECHNTQUE OF COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS
1.1 We Are Concerned to Maximize Return on Investment
In everyday life we are constantly confronted by
alternatives. We are concerned to know whether
we are getting value for money. We are concerned
to know whether there are better ways of solving
our problems. So it is with commercial enterprise.
The entrepreneur seeks to provide the public with
goods and services at minimum cost to himself. He
seeks to ensure that he will profit, having met
the costs of producing the goods and services. More
than this, he seeks to ensure that his profit will
be maximised having regard to the amount invested.
alternatives. We are concerned to know whether
we are getting value for money. We are concerned
to know whether there are better ways of solving
our problems. So it is with commercial enterprise.
The entrepreneur seeks to provide the public with
goods and services at minimum cost to himself. He
seeks to ensure that he will profit, having met
the costs of producing the goods and services. More
than this, he seeks to ensure that his profit will
be maximised having regard to the amount invested.
He chooses between alternative investments by
selecting that which yields the greatest return.
selecting that which yields the greatest return.
Public investment is rooted in the same philosophy.
It seeks to give expression to ‘consumer preference'
by spending public money on services which are
wanted or required. It aims at providing these
services at minimum cost. It seeks to maximize
the benefits derived from the service provided, and
to ensure the public gets value for money by
selecting the service yielding the greatest return.
It seeks to give expression to ‘consumer preference'
by spending public money on services which are
wanted or required. It aims at providing these
services at minimum cost. It seeks to maximize
the benefits derived from the service provided, and
to ensure the public gets value for money by
selecting the service yielding the greatest return.
Private investment is ruthlessly judged by cash flow.
If the entrepreneur has misjudged consumer preference,
so that people do not want his goods or services, his
investment fails.
If the entrepreneur has misjudged consumer preference,
so that people do not want his goods or services, his
investment fails.
In the public sphere there is no such measure. The
provision of a service will in many cases not be
accompanied by a cash flow (for instance education,
social services, the provision of roads). Even where
there is a cash flow (such as in railways) it may
or may not be designed to recoup the investment made.
The performance of the service, therefore, cannot
be judged in terms of cash. Yet, obviously public
investments (as with private investments) can be
good, or bad, or simply worse than they might have been.
How can this be judged? Cost/benefit analysis seeks
to provide the answer.
provision of a service will in many cases not be
accompanied by a cash flow (for instance education,
social services, the provision of roads). Even where
there is a cash flow (such as in railways) it may
or may not be designed to recoup the investment made.
The performance of the service, therefore, cannot
be judged in terms of cash. Yet, obviously public
investments (as with private investments) can be
good, or bad, or simply worse than they might have been.
How can this be judged? Cost/benefit analysis seeks
to provide the answer.
--------------(xxxii)----------------
1.2 What is Cost/Benefit Analysis
For any parcel of money there will be a number of
competing uses. What is called for is a rational
means of choosing between alternatives. It is
hardly an answer to simply choose the least costly.
That may yield derisory benefits. Nor is it adequate
to select the scheme with the greatest benefits.
They may be delivered at a prohibitive cost. What
is required is a bridge between costs, on the one
hand, and benefits on the other. Cost/benefit analysis
seeks to provide that bridge. It seeks to identify
the scheme with maximum excess of benefits over
costs. It does so by asking the following questions:
competing uses. What is called for is a rational
means of choosing between alternatives. It is
hardly an answer to simply choose the least costly.
That may yield derisory benefits. Nor is it adequate
to select the scheme with the greatest benefits.
They may be delivered at a prohibitive cost. What
is required is a bridge between costs, on the one
hand, and benefits on the other. Cost/benefit analysis
seeks to provide that bridge. It seeks to identify
the scheme with maximum excess of benefits over
costs. It does so by asking the following questions:
i. What
resources will be used in
delivering the solution (i.e.,
the costs) ?
delivering the solution (i.e.,
the costs) ?
ii. What
services will be produced
once the solution is implemented.
(i.e., the benefits)?
once the solution is implemented.
(i.e., the benefits)?
iii. When the
benefits are compared with
the costs, is there a surplus of
benefits?
the costs, is there a surplus of
benefits?
iv. Is that surplus
greater or smaller
than that yielded by other projects
competing for the same money?
than that yielded by other projects
competing for the same money?
The costs and benefits considered by the technique
are then described.
are then described.
1.3 Limitations of Cost/Benefit Analysis
Cost/benefit analysis seeks to discriminate between
the economically efficient and the economically
inefficient. The aim is applauded even by its
the economically efficient and the economically
inefficient. The aim is applauded even by its
critics. Further, it seeks to base its discrimination
upon consumer preferences. Again its critics would
not disagree.
upon consumer preferences. Again its critics would
not disagree.
The disagreement concerns the methodology. It
purports to imitate the method of private enterprise.
But it is like an elephant imitating a gazelle. The
one, private enterprise, is finely attuned to judging
the height of economic barriers and leaping them.
The other is differently oriented. Though barriers
can be placed in its path, which it may be helped
over by making certain concessions, its mimicry of
purports to imitate the method of private enterprise.
But it is like an elephant imitating a gazelle. The
one, private enterprise, is finely attuned to judging
the height of economic barriers and leaping them.
The other is differently oriented. Though barriers
can be placed in its path, which it may be helped
over by making certain concessions, its mimicry of
--------------(xxxiii)----------------
a gazelle is bound to be awkward.
Certain1y it can be appreciated, from the discussion
of each of the costs and benefits, that reasonable
people may reasonably differ on what is to be
included and what is to be excluded. It is
disquieting to some that a judgement on the economic
efficiency of a project will depend upon (to borrow
a phrase from the law) 'the length of the (planner's)
foot'.
of each of the costs and benefits, that reasonable
people may reasonably differ on what is to be
included and what is to be excluded. It is
disquieting to some that a judgement on the economic
efficiency of a project will depend upon (to borrow
a phrase from the law) 'the length of the (planner's)
foot'.
The chapter then considers a number of specific
criticisms made of the technique touching the matters
which it includes, matters which it excludes, and the
assumptions made in using the technique.
criticisms made of the technique touching the matters
which it includes, matters which it excludes, and the
assumptions made in using the technique.
1.4 The Role of Cost/Benefit Analysis in Environmental
Inquiries
Inquiries
To admit that cost/benefit analysis has limitations,
even major limitations, is not to concede that it
should be disregarded. One must be careful not to
throw out the baby with the bath water. If it
provides an insight, however dim, into economic
efficiency, in the absence of something better it
should be retained. Professor Beesley put it in
this way:
even major limitations, is not to concede that it
should be disregarded. One must be careful not to
throw out the baby with the bath water. If it
provides an insight, however dim, into economic
efficiency, in the absence of something better it
should be retained. Professor Beesley put it in
this way:
"In the heat of the
controversy about
the nature of evidence used in (cost/
benefit analysis), it is however,
frequently forgotten that justification
of values implicit in alternative ways
of making choices is far more flimsy,
if present at all."
the nature of evidence used in (cost/
benefit analysis), it is however,
frequently forgotten that justification
of values implicit in alternative ways
of making choices is far more flimsy,
if present at all."
What, then, are the merits of cost/benefit analysis?
First, it forces greater precision of thinking about
the definition of projects and the comparisons to
be made. Second1y, it treats a variety of options
in a consistent way. It is a technique designed to
highlight differences between options. The
--------------(xxxiv)----------------
differences, once identified, then can be analysed
for their significance. It is for this reason a
valuable springboard for discussion.
More than that, it is in some ways, despite its
many limitations, a convenient index of efficiency.
Trucks make the greater impact upon the road system
and upon the public consciousness. The cost/benefit
technique gives a weighting in favour of trucks
although its reason for doing so is less than
convincing. Whatever the rationale, it is important
when measuring efficiency of a transport facility
that there should be a weighting in favour of trucks.
many limitations, a convenient index of efficiency.
Trucks make the greater impact upon the road system
and upon the public consciousness. The cost/benefit
technique gives a weighting in favour of trucks
although its reason for doing so is less than
convincing. Whatever the rationale, it is important
when measuring efficiency of a transport facility
that there should be a weighting in favour of trucks.
Now the popularity of a new road amongst motorists
will depend upon its location and orientation in
relation to the countless journeys made each day
throughout the network. Built into the cost/benefit
index is an indication of that popularity, though
again the rationale for its inclusion (time savings
and operating costs) is less than convincing. Finally
in terms of value for money, the facility ought not
to be disproportionately expensive compared to the
numbers who will use it. All these matters come
together in a cost/benefit analysis. Something has
been invented to measure efficiency, which works
quite well in practice, even if the theory upon
which it rests is less than satisfying.
will depend upon its location and orientation in
relation to the countless journeys made each day
throughout the network. Built into the cost/benefit
index is an indication of that popularity, though
again the rationale for its inclusion (time savings
and operating costs) is less than convincing. Finally
in terms of value for money, the facility ought not
to be disproportionately expensive compared to the
numbers who will use it. All these matters come
together in a cost/benefit analysis. Something has
been invented to measure efficiency, which works
quite well in practice, even if the theory upon
which it rests is less than satisfying.
It is one of many factors to be considered by an
Inquiry.
Inquiry.
1.5 The Application of Cost/Benefit Analysis in the Inquiry
In the United Kingdom the Leitch Committee examined
the accuracy of the cost assessment made by the Road
Building Authority (equivalent of the DMR). It
concluded that its cost estimates were satisfactory.
the accuracy of the cost assessment made by the Road
Building Authority (equivalent of the DMR). It
concluded that its cost estimates were satisfactory.
There has been no equivalent examination in New South
Wales. It was not possible, nor appropriate, for the
Wales. It was not possible, nor appropriate, for the
--------------(xxxv)----------------
present Inquiry to embark upon such an examination.
Certain cost material placed before this Inquiry
gave rise to feelings of some disquiet. The cost
estimates of a project are the bed-rock upon which the
edifice of cost/benefit analysis is erected. It
is important that they should be accurate.
Certain cost material placed before this Inquiry
gave rise to feelings of some disquiet. The cost
estimates of a project are the bed-rock upon which the
edifice of cost/benefit analysis is erected. It
is important that they should be accurate.
We are not convinced that the cost estimates were
accurate. Accordingly, the cost/benefit figures are
suspect. It is our view that the benefit/cost ratios
are likely to be rather less favourable than the
analyses suggest because the cost figures are
understated.
accurate. Accordingly, the cost/benefit figures are
suspect. It is our view that the benefit/cost ratios
are likely to be rather less favourable than the
analyses suggest because the cost figures are
understated.
Open space, is particular, seems to us to have been
undervalued. The principle suggested by the
Commonwealth Body (then the Commonwealth Bureau of
Roads) for the valuation of parklands resumed for the
purposes of road construction is as follows:
undervalued. The principle suggested by the
Commonwealth Body (then the Commonwealth Bureau of
Roads) for the valuation of parklands resumed for the
purposes of road construction is as follows:
"In urban areas where
parklands are often
used for road construction, the relevant
economic value of the parkland is the
valuation it would have if it were made
available for other activities, such as
manufacturing or residential.”
(emphasis added)
used for road construction, the relevant
economic value of the parkland is the
valuation it would have if it were made
available for other activities, such as
manufacturing or residential.”
(emphasis added)
What happened in the present Inquiry? Plainly the
acquisition cost, and not the opportunity cost, (i.e.,
the cost if the land were used in some other way
such as residential, industrial, parkland etc) has
been used. In respect of the Cooks River Corridor
the facts are these:
acquisition cost, and not the opportunity cost, (i.e.,
the cost if the land were used in some other way
such as residential, industrial, parkland etc) has
been used. In respect of the Cooks River Corridor
the facts are these:
- The proposal examined by the Study Group
in February, 1977 involved the acquisition
of 20 ha. Of open space - The opportunity costs were said to be
$11 million - The cost per hectare (to take a rudimentary
guide) was assessed at $550,000
--------------(xxxvi)----------------
In the Cooks River Option being considered by this
Inquiry the comparable statistics are:
Inquiry the comparable statistics are:
- 6.6 hectares of open space would be
resumed (maximum open space option) - The total value attributed to this
land. is $717,550 - The value per hectare has reduced to
approximately $109,000 even though the
valuation was made 18 months later
The contrast in the case of the South Western Option
is even more stark. The facts are:
is even more stark. The facts are:
- 36 hectares of open space would be
resumed - The total value of this land is $3,349,700
- The cost per hectare for this land is
approximately $93,000
No doubt the value of some of the land between Bexley
Road and Turrella would have to be discounted because
it is steep or swampy or unsuitable for development.
Making that allowance, the discrepancy is still
enormous. It must adversely affect the cost/benefit
analysis.
Road and Turrella would have to be discounted because
it is steep or swampy or unsuitable for development.
Making that allowance, the discrepancy is still
enormous. It must adversely affect the cost/benefit
analysis.
2. EQUITY
2.1 The Meaning of the Term
Equity means fairness. A road is equitable if it
fairly distributes costs and benefits throughout
the community so that one group is not called
upon to shoulder a disproportionate burden for the
benefit of another.
fairly distributes costs and benefits throughout
the community so that one group is not called
upon to shoulder a disproportionate burden for the
benefit of another.
It is now recognised that the rationale of the
'public good' is far too crude. The point is put
in this way by the O.E.C.D. publication "Roads and
the Urban Environment":
'public good' is far too crude. The point is put
in this way by the O.E.C.D. publication "Roads and
the Urban Environment":
--------------(xxxvii)----------------
"..The bureaucratic concept of
'public interest' (is) too
ill defined, and (is) at worst,
a mask for the ruthless destruction
of one group's environment for the
benefit of another."
'public interest' (is) too
ill defined, and (is) at worst,
a mask for the ruthless destruction
of one group's environment for the
benefit of another."
2.2 The Importance of Equity to the Evaluation Process
The concept of equity enables the person making the
evaluation to know exactly who is receiving benefits;
the extent to which benefits and disadvantages can be
made to coincide; and insofar as they do not coincide,
the extent to which any group disadvantaged is
compensated in some adequate way for the disadvantage
suffered.
evaluation to know exactly who is receiving benefits;
the extent to which benefits and disadvantages can be
made to coincide; and insofar as they do not coincide,
the extent to which any group disadvantaged is
compensated in some adequate way for the disadvantage
suffered.
2.3 A Range of Alternatives Ought to be Available
It is essential that a broad range of alternatives
is available to the Inquiry for its consideration.
That range of alternatives is simply not available
to this Inquiry. Whether, if it were available,
some options would be demonstrably less inequitable
than others, is something about which we can only
speculate.
2.4 The Concept of Accountability
The explanation for this concept emerges from the
submission of the Community Resources Centre,
Bardwell Park. They say:
submission of the Community Resources Centre,
Bardwell Park. They say:
"The concept of accountability
assumes
that the proponents of the road will
take full account of the expressed
needs and wishes of the community
likely to be affected. It assumes
that, in one form or another, the
public will be consulted at various
stages of the planning process and
that the road proposals will reflect
their preferences."
that the proponents of the road will
take full account of the expressed
needs and wishes of the community
likely to be affected. It assumes
that, in one form or another, the
public will be consulted at various
stages of the planning process and
that the road proposals will reflect
their preferences."
It is not suggested that the concept of accountability,
in the sense of the community preferences, should
in the sense of the community preferences, should
--------------(xxxviii)----------------
determine whether or not a facility is provided.
Occasions will arise where the wider interests of
the region, or the metropolitan area, or the state,
or the country, will demand that a particular
facility be provided even though the community
which is subjected to that facility may itself be
against its provision. Expressions of community
preference are most important, and are not lightly
put to one side, but they cannot, in every case,
determine the result. It is a question of judgement
in each case.
Occasions will arise where the wider interests of
the region, or the metropolitan area, or the state,
or the country, will demand that a particular
facility be provided even though the community
which is subjected to that facility may itself be
against its provision. Expressions of community
preference are most important, and are not lightly
put to one side, but they cannot, in every case,
determine the result. It is a question of judgement
in each case.
----------End of summary to Volume II-----------
